Mauryas, Post-Mauryan Kingdoms, Guptas and Early Medieval India

The Maurya empire (c. 321–185 BCE)

• Chandragupta Maurya:
  • Overthrew Dhana Nanda with the help of Kautilya.
  • Defeated Seleucus Nikator in c. 305 BCE and gained Arachosia, Gedrosia and Paropamisadae. Megasthenes came to his court and wrote Indica.
  • Became a Jain late in life, went south with Bhadrabahu and died at Shravanabelagola by sallekhana.
• Bindusara: the Greeks called him Amitraghata, "slayer of foes". Antiochus I sent Deimachus to his court.
• Ashoka (c. 268–232 BCE):
  • The Kalinga war (c. 261 BCE) brought remorse (Rock Edict XIII) and the turn to dhamma.
  • He was guided by the monk Upagupta.
  • The third Buddhist council at Pataliputra was held in his time. He sent missions abroad; his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra went to Sri Lanka.

Ashoka's dhamma

Dhamma was a moral code, not Buddhism as such:

• tolerance of all sects;
• respect for elders, teachers and Brahmins and shramanas;
• kindness to slaves and animals;
• fewer rituals.

He appointed Dhamma Mahamattas and went on dhamma yatras.

Edicts

• 14 Major Rock Edicts, 7 Pillar Edicts, and Minor Rock and Pillar Edicts.
• Language is Prakrit. The script is mostly Brahmi; Kharosthi in the north-west (Shahbazgarhi, Mansehra); Greek and Aramaic at Kandahar.
• James Prinsep deciphered Brahmi in 1837.
• The name "Ashoka" appears in the Maski and Gujarra edicts.
• Bihar sites: Lauriya Nandangarh, Lauriya Araraj and Rampurva pillars, and the Barabar caves, which Ashoka gave to the Ajivikas.

Mauryan administration (from the Arthashastra and Indica)

• Highly centralised. The king was helped by a mantriparishad.
• Officials: samaharta (revenue collector), sannidhata (treasurer), adhyakshas (superintendents of departments).
• Provinces: Taxila, Ujjain, Tosali, Suvarnagiri, with Pataliputra as the centre. Each was under a kumara (prince).
• Megasthenes described a six-committee board running Pataliputra and seven "castes" in society.
• Economy:
  • The state controlled mining and trade.
  • Land revenue (bhaga) was one-sixth of the produce.
  • Punch-marked coins of silver were in use.
• Art:
  • polished monolithic pillars (Sarnath lion capital, now the national emblem);
  • stupas (Sanchi core);
  • Didarganj Yakshi (Patna);
  • rock-cut Barabar caves.

Decline: Pushyamitra Shunga killed the last Maurya, Brihadratha, in about 185 BCE.

Post-Mauryan period (c. 200 BCE–300 CE)

• North:
  • Shungas and Kanvas.
  • Indo-Greeks: Menander (Milinda), who appears in the Milindapanho, the dialogue with Nagasena.
  • Shakas: Rudradaman I's Junagadh inscription (150 CE) is the first long inscription in Sanskrit; it records repairs to the Sudarshana lake.
  • Parthians (Gondophares; St Thomas).
• Kushanas:
  • Kanishka started the Saka era (78 CE).
  • Capitals: Purushapura (Peshawar) and Mathura.
  • Fourth Buddhist council; patronised Mahayana.
  • Court figures: Ashvaghosha, Vasumitra, Nagarjuna and Charaka.
  • Issued the largest number of gold coins.
  • Art: the Gandhara school (Greco-Roman style) and the Mathura school (indigenous, red sandstone).
• Deccan:
  • Satavahanas, at Pratishthana (Paithan). Gautamiputra Satakarni appears in the Nasik inscription.
  • They made the first land grants to Brahmins, used lead coins and built the Amaravati stupa.
• Kalinga: Kharavela, recorded in the Hathigumpha inscription, was a Jain ruler.

Sangam age (c. 3rd century BCE–3rd century CE)

• Three Sangams (assemblies of poets) were held at Madurai, according to tradition.
• Texts: Tolkappiyam (grammar), Ettuthogai, Pattuppattu, Tirukkural (Tiruvalluvar), and the epics Silappadikaram (Ilango Adigal) and Manimekalai.
• Dynasties:
  • Cholas: Uraiyur and Puhar; Karikala built the Kallanai dam on the Kaveri.
  • Cheras: Vanji.
  • Pandyas: Madurai.
• Trade with Rome: at Arikamedu, near Puducherry, through the port of Muziris.

The Gupta empire (c. 319–550 CE)

• Chandragupta I started the Gupta era (319–320 CE) and married the Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi.
• Samudragupta:
  • The Allahabad (Prayag) Prashasti by Harisena records his conquests.
  • He defeated northern kings outright (digvijaya) and freed southern kings after they submitted.
  • V. A. Smith called him the "Napoleon of India". He played the veena and is shown doing so on his coins.
• Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya):
  • defeated the Shakas of western India and issued silver coins;
  • Navaratnas, including Kalidasa;
  • Faxian visited during his reign;
  • the Mehrauli iron pillar.
• Kumaragupta I founded Nalanda. Skandagupta repelled the Hunas (Bhitari inscription) and repaired the Sudarshana lake.

Why the period is called "classical"

• Literature:
  • Kalidasa: Abhijnanashakuntalam, Meghaduta, Raghuvamsha;
  • Vishakhadatta: Mudrarakshasa;
  • Shudraka: Mrichchhakatika;
  • the Puranas and the epics reached their final form.
• Science:
  • Aryabhata (Aryabhatiya): the earth's rotation, and a value of π close to 3.1416;
  • Varahamihira (Brihat Samhita);
  • Brahmagupta came slightly later;
  • the decimal place-value system with zero.
• Art:
  • structural temples: Dashavatara temple at Deogarh, Bhitargaon (brick);
  • Ajanta paintings (Vakataka patronage);
  • the Sarnath Buddha;
  • Udayagiri caves (Varaha panel).
• Gold coins called dinaras, in large numbers.

Signs of feudalisation: more land grants (agrahara) to Brahmins and officials, decline of urban centres and of trade later in the period, a rise in untouchability (Faxian noted the Chandalas), and decline in the status of women (the first record of sati, at Eran, 510 CE).

Post-Gupta period

• Harshavardhana (606–647 CE):
  • Capital moved from Thanesar to Kannauj.
  • Defeated by the Chalukya king Pulakeshin II on the Narmada (Aihole inscription by Ravikirti).
  • Held the Kannauj assembly and the Prayag assemblies every five years.
  • Banabhatta wrote the Harshacharita. Harsha himself wrote the plays Nagananda, Ratnavali and Priyadarshika.
  • Xuanzang stayed for about 15 years and studied at Nalanda.
• South:
  • Pallavas of Kanchi: Mahabalipuram rathas and the Shore Temple (Narasimhavarman II).
  • Chalukyas of Badami: Aihole, Pattadakal (UNESCO).
  • Rashtrakutas: the Kailasa temple at Ellora (Krishna I).
• Tripartite struggle for Kannauj (8th–10th century): the Palas (Bengal–Bihar), the Gurjara-Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas.
  • Palas: Dharmapala founded Vikramashila (Bhagalpur). Devapala patronised Nalanda.
• Cholas (9th–13th century):
  • Rajaraja I built the Brihadeshwara temple, Thanjavur.
  • Rajendra I led the Ganga expedition (Gangaikondacholapuram) and a naval expedition to Srivijaya.
  • Local self-government: the Uttaramerur inscriptions describe village assemblies (ur, sabha) and selection by lot (kudavolai).

Exam tip: Inscriptions are a sure question. Make a list of inscription, ruler and author: Hathigumpha–Kharavela; Junagadh–Rudradaman; Nasik–Gautamiputra; Prayag–Samudragupta (Harisena); Aihole–Pulakeshin II (Ravikirti); Mehrauli–Chandra (Chandragupta II); Bhitari–Skandagupta; Uttaramerur–Parantaka I.